Sophists Definition and Observations

Professional teachers of rhetoric (as well as other subjects) in  ancient Greece are known as Sophists. Major figures included Gorgias, Hippias, Protagoras, and Antiphon. This term comes from the Greek, to become wise. Examples Recent scholarship (for example, Edward Schiappas The Beginnings of Rhetorical Theory in Classical Greece, 1999) has challenged conventional views that rhetoric was born with the democratization of Syracuse, developed by the Sophists in a somewhat shallow way, criticized by Plato in a somewhat impractical way, and rescued by Aristotle, whose Rhetoric found the mean between Sophistic relativism and Platonic idealism. The Sophists were, in fact, a rather disparate group of teachers, some of whom may have been opportunistic hucksters while others (such as Isocrates) were closer in spirit and method to Aristotle and other philosophers.The development of rhetoric in 5th-century B.C. certainly corresponded to the rise of the new legal system that accompanied the democratic government (that is, the several hundred men who were defined as Athenian citizens) in parts of ancient Greece. (Keep in mind that before the invention of lawyers, citizens represented themselves in the Assembly--usually in front of sizable juries.) It is believed that the Sophists generally taught by example rather than precept; that is, they prepared and delivered specimen speeches for their students to imitate.In any case, as Thomas Cole has noted, its difficult to identify anything like a common set of Sophistic rhetorical principles (The Origins of Rhetoric in Ancient Greece, 1991). We do know a couple of things for certain: (1) that in the 4th century B.C. Aristotle assembled the rhetorical handbooks that were then available into a collection called the Synagoge Techne (now, unfortunately, lost); and (2) that his Rhetoric (which is actually a set of lecture notes) is the earliest extant example of a complete theory, or art, of rhetoric. Platos Criticism of the Sophists The Sophists formed part of the intellectual culture of classical Greece during the second half of the fifth century BCE. Best known as professional educators in the Hellenic world, they were regarded in their time as polymaths, men of varied and great learning. . . . Their doctrines and practices were instrumental in shifting attention from the cosmological speculations of the pre-Socratics to anthropological investigations with a decidedly practical nature. . . . [In the Gorgias and elsewhere] Plato critiques the Sophists for privileging appearances over reality, making the weaker argument appear the stronger, preferring the pleasant over the good, favoring opinions over the truth and probability over certainty, and choosing rhetoric over philosophy. In recent times, this unflattering portrayal has been countered with a more sympathetic appraisal of the Sophists status in antiquity as well as their ideas for modernity.(John Poulakos, Sophists. Encyclopedia of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 2001) The Sophists as Educators [R]hetorical education offered its students mastery of the skills of language necessary to participating in political life and succeeding in financial ventures. The Sophists education in rhetoric, then, opened a new doorway to success for many Greek citizens.(James Herrick, History and Theory of Rhetoric. Allyn Bacon, 2001) [T]he sophists were most concerned with the civic world, most specifically the functioning of the democracy, for which the participants in sophistic education were preparing themselves.(Susan Jarratt, Rereading the Sophists. Southern Illinois University Press, 1991) Isocrates, Against the Sophists When the layman . . . observes that the teachers of wisdom and dispensers of happiness are themselves in great want but exact only a small fee from their students, that they are on the watch for contradictions in words but are blind to inconsistencies in deeds, and that, furthermore, they pretend to have knowledge of the future but are incapable either of saying anything pertinent or of giving any counsel regarding the present, . . . then he has, I think, good reason to condemn such studies and regard them as stuff and nonsense, and not as a true discipline of the soul. . . . [L]et no one suppose that I claim that just living can be taught; for, in a word, I hold that there does not exist an art of the kind which can implant sobriety and justice in depraved natures. Nevertheless, I do think that the study of political discourse can help more than any other thing to stimulate and form such qualities of character.(Isocrates, Against the Sophists, c. 382 BC. Translated by George Norlin)

Lung Cancer Cases And The Evidence Used For Decide Patient...

I will be discussing two lung cancer cases and the evidence used to decide patient’s management. NSCLC A 65 year-old woman with known COPD on inhalers presented with a one-month history of a cough and increased shortness of breath. Lung function revealed FEV1 1.40 (54% predicted), TLCO (63% predicted) and patient performance status was 1. She proceeded to have staging CT scan/PET scan/EBUS and investigations all revealed final diagnosis stage IIIA T3N2M0 Non small cell lung cancer squamous (NSCLC). The patient’s case discussed at the lung MDT, decision was for concurrent chemoradiotherapy. I will be discussing evidence for concurrent chemoradiotherapy (CRT )in NSCLC versus sequential chemoradiotherapy and radiotherapy( RT)alone . Approximately 30% of NSCLC presented with stage III of which 12% have stage IIIA and 17.6 % stage IIIB disease. The 5 years’ overall survival OS figures for clinically staged IIIA and IIIB disease 18% and 8% respectively. The poor outcome observed are due to the loco regional failure 30% and distant failure 40-60%. Two randomised phase III trial in patients with staged IIIA NSCLC failed to demonstrate benefit of surgery in stage III N2 disease (Van Meerbeek et al .2007 ).4 Overall survival in patient with stag IIIA NSCLC who received concurrent CRT is 20-25% with median survival of 16-17 months .5 Radical radiotherapy, often combined with concurrent or sequential chemotherapy, is theShow MoreRelatedApproach to Cancer Care Essay2354 Words   |  10 PagesApproach to Cancer care Nursing 410v Grand Canyon University October 5, 2011 Staging is the process of finding out how much cancer there is in the body and where it is located. It is how the doctor learns the stage of a persons cancer. Doctors use this information to plan treatment and to help predict a persons outlook (prognosis). Cancers with the same stage tend to have similar outlooks and are often treated the same way. 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Biological Psychology Final Notes Free Essays

Chapter 2- Darwin was the first to suggest how evolutionoccurs. Humans belong to the primate family known as hominins. Characteristics that evolved to perform one function but were co-opted to perform another function are called exaptations. We will write a custom essay sample on Biological Psychology Final Notes or any similar topic only for you Order Now Each group of three consecutive nucleotide bases along the strand of messenger RNA is called a codon, which instructs the ribosome to add amino acids to the protein being constructed. Subsequent to the nature-nuture issue, a second line of thought surrounding the biology of behavior is the dualistic physiological-psychological debate. Courtship displays are thought to be important because they premote the evolution of new species. Amphibians evolved from bony fishes and later into reptiles, the first vertebrates to lay shell-covered eggs and to be covered with dry scales. In most species mating is indiscriminate or promiscuous; however, there are some species in which males and females create mating bonds with members of the opposite sex. Genes that contain the information necessary for the synthesis of proteins are enhancer genes. Not all DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell; some is found in mitochondria. Monoallelic expression occurs when one of the two alleles of a gene is inactivated, due to an unidentified epigenetic mechanism, and the other allele is expressed. Descartes claimed the mind is made up of the soul, body, and spirit. RNA is like DNA except it contains the base uracil instead of thymine. Epigenetic mechanisms are thought to be the mearns by which a small number of genes are able to orchestrate the development of human complexity. The mate-bonding pattern in which bonds are formed between one male and one female is known as monogamy. Evolution is not always adaptive. Incidental non-adaptive byproducts are called spandrels. Mitochondria are energy generation structures that are located in the cytoplasm of every cell. Each chromosome has double stranded molecules known as DNA and each is a sequence of nucleotide bases. Courtship displays are thought to be important because the premote the evolution of new species. Chapter 3- CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord. PNS is located outside the skull and spine and serves to bring info to the CNS and carry signals out of the CNS. PNS: Somatic Nervous System – Afferent nerves (sensory) Efferent nerves (motor). Autonomic Nervous System- Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves and both nerves are efferent. Sympathetic – thoracic and lumbar, â€Å"fight or flight,† second stage neurons are far from the target organ. Parasympathetic – cranial and sacral, â€Å"rest and restore,† second stage neurons are near the target organ. All nerves are efferent. Sympathetic and parasympathetic generally have opposite effects. Two stage neural paths, neuron exiting the CNS synapses on a second stage neuron before the target organ. Protective mechanisms of the CNS – bone (brain spinal cord), meninges (protective membranes), cerebrospinal fluid, and blood brain barrier. CNS encased in bone and covered by three meninges: dura mater- tough outer membrane, arachnoid membrane – web like, pia mater – adheres to CNS surface. Ventricles spinal cord – contain spinal fluid, cushion against mechanical shock, delivery of hormones, delivery of nutrients. Cerebral Vascular system – delivery of nutrients (glucose, thiamine), delivery of hormones (communication), thermoregulation (maintain temperature), blood brain barrier. Two Types of Cells in Nervous System: neurons – transmit electrical and chemical signals, different types of neurons. Glia – different types, different functions. Neurons – specialized cells for the reception, conduction and transmission of electrochemical signals AND many sizes and shapes. Neurons-messengers-release of chemical that forms communication with other neurons. Semi-permeable membranes – uncharged molecules; move freely across membrane, a few charged molecules (sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride) move through channels, lipids (fat molecules) are key components of the membrane, protein molecules are the key components of ion channels. Glial cells (forgotten cells): glial cells – support neurons, recent evidence for glial communication and modulatory effects of glia on neuronal communication. Types of glial cells: oligodendrocytes- extensions rich in myelin create myelin sheaths in CNS. Schwann cells- ssimilar to function of oligodendrocytes but in PNS, can guide axonal regeneration. Astrocytes- largest glia, star shaped, many functions. Microglia- involved in response to injury or disease. Radial glia- form temporary network to facilitate neural migration. Phagocytic microglia in the flat-mounted inner retina of the rat following transection of the optic nerve – the neurons were axotomized and retrogradely labelled with the fluorescent dye, Due to the membranophilic property of the dye, microglial cells became transcellularly stained after phagocytosis of 4Di-10ASP-labelled neuronal debris. Inside the phagocytes, incorporated membranes are accumulated in phagosomes, which are detectable even years after the neuronal injury. Golgi stain – allows for visualization of individual neurons and general shapes. Nissl stain – selectively stains cell bodies; permits quantification of cell bodies. Electron microscopy – details of neuronal structure. Neuroanatomical Tracing Techniques: Anterograde(forward)- tracing to where axons project away from an area. Retrograde (backward)- tracing from where axons are projecting into an area. Contralateral–opposite side. Ipsilateral – same side. Gray matter – inner component, primarily cell bodies. White matter – outer area, mainly myelinated. Forebrain: Cerebral hemispheres Cortex, Hippocampus, Basal ganglia, Thalamus, Hypothalamus. Midbrain: Tectum, Tegmentum, Superior Colliculus, Inferior colliculus, Substantia nigra. Hindbrain: Pons, Cerebellum, Medulla axons. Chapter 4: Membrane potential: difference in electrical charge (charged particles or ions) between inside and outside of cell. Resting membrane potential: Resting membrane potential is about –70 mV, Potential inside of the neuron is 70 mV less than that outside of the neuron, When difference in potential exists, the membrane is said to be polarized (carries a charge). Ions move in/out through ion-specific channels. Potassium (K+) and Chloride (Cl-) pass readily. Sodium (Na+)-little free movement across membrane. Negatively charged proteins (A-)– Synthesized within the neuron, Found primarily within the neuron, A-don’t move at all, trapped inside. Binding of neurotransmitters to receptors causes changes in the electrical charge. Depolarizations (membrane potential less negative) result in excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). Hyperpolarizations (membrane potential more negative) result in inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs). Threshold of activation (-65 mV) must be reached near the axon hillock. Spatial summation : Adding or combining individual signals (PSPs) happening at different places into one overall signal. Temporal summation: Adding or combining individual signals (PSPs) happening at different times into one overall signal. Synthesis, Packaging, and Transport of Neurotransmitter Molecules- The chemical signal: Neurotransmitter molecules — Small; Synthesized in the terminal button and packaged in synaptic vesicles. Large; Assembled in the cell body, packaged in vesicles, and then transported to the axon terminal. Major Events in Neurotransmission– The arrival of an AP at the terminal opens voltage-activated Ca2+ channels, The entry of Ca2+ causes vesicles to fuse to the presynaptic membrane and be released into the synaptic cleft. Exocytosis – the process of NT release. Glutamate – Most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Astrocytes appear to communicate and to modulate neuronal aactivity. Chapter 15: â€Å"Addicts† are those who continue to use a drug despite its adverse effects on health and social life . Most addictive drugs target dopamine pathways and other NTs. Psychoactive drugs – drugs that influence subjective experience and behavior by acting on the nervous system: In order for a psychoactive drug to have an effect, it must get to the brain – it must pass through the blood-brain barrier, Action of most drugs terminated by enzymes in the liver – drug metabolism, Small amounts may also be excreted in urine, sweat, feces, breath, and mother’s milk. Alcohol: A depressant. Marijuana: Cannabis sativa – common hemp plant. Medicinal Uses of Marijuana: Treats nausea, Blocks seizures, Dilates bronchioles of asthmatics, Decreases severity of glaucoma. Reduces some forms of pain. †¢ Drugs influence availability of neurotransmitters. – Agonist – if drug mimics or enhances NT– Antagonist – if drug inhibits NT aactivity. – Affinity – if drug binds to a receptor. – Efficacy – its tendency to activate the receptor. Relapse – priming doses (prefrontal cortex), drug associated cues (amygdala), and stress (hypothalamic stress circuits). Chapter 5: MRI ? High resolution images. ? Constructed from measurement of waves that hydrogen atoms emit when activated within a magnetic field. PET scan ? Provides images of brain aactivity ? Scan is an image of levels of radioaactivity in various parts of one horizontal level of the brain ? A radiolabeled substance is administered prior to the scan. Chapter 6: Light enters the eye through the pupil, whose size changes in response to changes in illumination. Sensitivity – the ability to see when light is dim. Acuity – the ability to see details. Lens – focuses light on the retina. Ciliary muscles alter the shape of the lens as needed. Accommodation – the process of adjusting the lens to bring images into focus. Myopia – nearsightedness – inability to bring distant objects into focus; eyeball too long or cornea too curved; focal point of light falls short of the retina. Hyperopia – farsightedness – inability to focus on near objects; eyeball too short or lens too flat; focal point of light falls beyond the retina. Presbyopia – oldsightedness – lens loses elasticity; unable to refract light; most people over 50. Convergence – eyes must turn slightly inward when objects are close. Binocular disparity – difference between the images on the two retinas. Light passes through ganglion and bipolar cell to visual receptors and then†¦? Photoreceptors (rods and cones)? Horizontal cells? Bipolar cells? Amacrine cells? Retinal ganglion cells? Axons of the ganglion cells leave the back of the eye as the optic nerve. Cones: Photopic (daytime) vision. High-acuity and color information in good lighting. Concentrated in the fovea. ? Rods: Scotopic (nighttime) vision. High-sensitivity, allowing for low-acuity vision in dim light, but lacks detail and color information. Found only in the periphery. Rods: High convergence increased sensitivity, decreased acuity. Cones: Low convergence ? less sensitivity, increased acuity. Fovea: high acuity area at center of retina. Optic nerve is made up of axons of ganglion cells. We continually scan the world with small and quick eye movements – saccades. Transduction – conversion of one form of energy to another. Receptive field: The area of the visual field within which it is possible for a visual stimulus to influence the firing of a given neuron. Most neurons in V1 are either ? Simple – receptive fields are rectangular with â€Å"on† and â€Å"off† regions, or all monocular ? Complex – also rectangular, larger receptive fields, respond best to a particular stimulus anywhere in its receptive field and many are binocular. Chapter 7: Primary cortex–input mainly from thalamic relay nuclei †¢ Secondary Cortex – input mainly from primary and secondary cortex within the sensory system †¢ Association Cortex – input from more than one sensory system, usually from secondary sensory cortex. Sensation – detecting a stimulus †¢ Perception – understanding the stimulus. How to cite Biological Psychology Final Notes, Papers